On Friday night, SpaceX successfully completed its 99th flight of the year with a Starlink mission from Cape Canaveral, Florida.

At 7:31 p.m. Eastern time, a Falcon 9 carrying 20 Starlink satellites blasted out from Canaveral’s Space Launch Complex 40.

The Just Read the Instructions droneship’s first-stage rocket completed a downrange recovery touchdown in the Atlantic on its seventeenth flight.

It was the 71st flight from the Space Coast in 2024, just one less than the record-breaking 72 launches in 2023. United Launch Alliance has launched the remaining ones, while SpaceX has flown all but five of those.

There have only been two Falcon Heavy missions this year, with the remainder being Falcon 9 launches.

Along with the other 18 from KSC, this was the 53rd launch from Cape Canaveral.

Together with the two Falcon Heavy missions, SpaceX has performed 33 missions from Vandenberg Space Force Base in California this year, for a total of 97 Falcon 9 launches, including this one.

From its Starbase test site in Boca Chica, Texas, it has also launched three test flights of its in-development Starship and Super Heavy rocket, all of which have reached orbit.

Adding to the success of the March and June missions, last Sunday’s launch included the first on-target controlled landing of the second stage in the Indian Ocean and the first land capture of the Super Heavy booster back at the launch tower.

In 2023, SpaceX completed 98 operational missions, including 91 Falcon 9 and 5 Falcon Heavy missions. The company also attempted two Starship test flights, both of which ended explosively before reaching orbit, though one of them managed to reach space for a brief period of time before being destroyed by its flight termination system.

Officials from the business stated at the beginning of 2024 that it could reach 144 launches for the year, or 12 launches per month. However, weather and the three different groundings of its Falcon 9 rocket due to various problems have caused some obstacles to that pace.

This launch is only the sixth of October thus far. It flew nine times in September, eleven times in August, six times in July, ten times in June, thirteen times in May, twelve times in April, eleven times in March, nine times in February, and ten times in January.

Most of them have been for Starlink, which has launched over 7,100 versions since the first functional versions were sent up in 2019.

This marked SpaceX’s 67th Starlink launch in 2024.

According to recent research, dusty ice in the Red Planet’s mid-latitudes may be covering the conditions necessary for photosynthesis to take place on Mars.

The process of photosynthesis is how cyanobacteria, algae, and plants produce chemical energy. In order to continue, it needs light and water, and it produces most of the oxygen in the atmosphere. According to the latest research, Mars may be able to create “radiative habitable zones”—zones where a thick enough covering of ice would block off the sun’s harmful radiation while still allowing enough light to support photosynthesis.

These findings need to be interpreted in the correct context, much as photosynthesis requires the ideal amount of light to occur. The findings do not imply that life has ever existed on Mars or exists now, but they do provide scientists conducting the ongoing search with a direction to search.

The “habitable zone” is the area surrounding a star where conditions are favorable for liquid water to exist on a planet’s surface, and this includes both Earth and Mars. Mars seems to be a largely dry landscape, despite the fact that 71% of Earth’s surface is covered in oceans with liquid water.

It has been revealed by observations made by Mars missions like the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers that this was not always the case. These robots’ explorations of geological features like dried lake basins and river tributaries suggest that liquid water once flowed across the Red Planet’s landscapes billions of years ago. Furthermore, water ice has been discovered on Mars by orbiting missions like NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), frequently in unexpected places.

Scientists believe that Mars’ atmosphere was mostly stripped away and its magnetic field burnt out billions of years ago, whence Earth’s magnetosphere still exists. This implied that not much could be done to stop water from evaporating and vanishing into space. Due to its thin atmosphere, modern Mars is also subjected to the sun’s intense UV radiation, which is lethal to life and breaks down the intricate molecules required for it.

“Unlike Earth, Mars lacks a protective ozone shield, so there is 30% more harmful ultraviolet radiation at the surface in comparison with our planet,” Khuller stated. “Thus, on Mars, the areas where photosynthesis could occur are more likely to be within dusty ice because the overlying dusty ice blocks the harmful ultraviolet radiation at Mars’ surface, and liquid water is highly unstable at the surface of Mars due to its dry atmosphere.”

The scientists discovered through computer simulations that the shallow liquid water beneath the surface of dusty Mars ice can melt from within, shielded from evaporating into the dry Martian atmosphere by the ice covering it.

“So, the two key ingredients for photosynthesis can be present within dusty Martian ice in the mid-latitudes,” Khuller stated. “For photosynthesis to take place, there must be sufficient sunlight and liquid water. Previous independent models of dense Martian snow have shown that if dust particles (less than 1 percent) are present in the snow, melting below the surface can still happen in the Martian mid-latitudes today.

“By discovering dusty ice exposed within buried dusty snowpacks associated with Martian gullies a few years ago, there is a mechanism for them to melt below the surface to form shallow subsurface liquid water.”

According to Khuller, the researchers discovered that the surrounding ice can shield the exposed dusty ice from the damaging UV rays that reach the surface of Mars. Additionally, enough sun energy can pass through this ice below the surface to support photosynthesis.

The concentration of dust in the ice determines the depths at which these radiative habitable zones are found. According to the team’s models, ice that is very dusty would obstruct too much light. On the other hand, a radiative zone might occur in ice containing 0.01% to 0.1% dust at a depth of 2 to 15 inches (5 to 38 centimeters). At a depth of seven to ten feet (2.2 to 3.1 meters), a wider and deeper radiative zone would be possible with less “polluted” ice.

The team believes that a lack of subsurface melting would make the polar regions of Mars, where most of the planet’s ice is found, too cold for these radiative habitable zones to exist. The Red Planet’s mid-latitude regions would be more prone to experience this kind of melting.

The observable evidence that the team has gathered comes from Earth rather than Mars, lending some credence to their theory.

“I was surprised to find out that there are potentially similar analogs for life within ice on Earth that contains dust and sediment,” Khuller said. “These are called ‘cryoconite holes’ and form when dust and sediment on top of the ice melt into the ice because it is darker than the ice.”

The study went on to say that every summer, even though the ice above is frozen, liquid water forms surrounding the black dust within the ice as a result of heating from sunshine. This occurs as a result of the ice’s transparency, which lets light through below the surface.

“People have found microorganisms that live in these shallow subsurface habitats on Earth,” Khuller stated. “The microorganisms typically go dormant in the winter when there is not enough sunlight to form liquid water within the dusty ice.”

Naturally, none of this suggests that there is or ever was photosynthetic life on Mars. However, it’s exciting and might encourage more research into the possibility that the Red Planet has subterranean radiative livable zones.

“I am working with a team of scientists to develop improved simulations of if, where, and when dusty ice could be melting on Mars today,” Khuller said. “Additionally, we are recreating some of these dusty ice scenarios in a lab setting to examine them in more detail.”

A recent study provides the most detailed insight into Earth’s surface temperature fluctuations during the Phanerozoic eon, spanning from 538.8 million years ago to the present. This research reveals that Earth’s temperature has varied more significantly than previously understood and confirms a strong correlation between global temperatures and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

The international research team created a comprehensive temperature curve using a method called data assimilation. By analyzing fossil distributions of cold- and heat-tolerant species, along with the chemistry of ancient shells, fossilized microorganisms, and organic matter, scientists were able to reconstruct past ocean temperatures. Additionally, geological indicators such as salt deposits and specific minerals helped map historical climates.

The researchers compiled over 150,000 published data points into a database known as PhanTASTIC (Phanerozoic Technique Averaged Surface Temperature Integrated Curve Project) and integrated this data with modern climate models.

“This method was originally designed for weather forecasting,” says Emily Judd, lead author of the study. “Here, we apply it to hindcast ancient climates rather than predict future weather.”

The team from Arizona collaborated with colleagues at the University of Bristol, generating over 850 climate model simulations based on historical continental positions and atmospheric compositions. By combining these data sources, they constructed a more accurate representation of temperature variations over the last 485 million years.

The findings indicate that global mean surface temperatures ranged from 52 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit (11 to 36 degrees Celsius) during the Phanerozoic. Extreme heat periods were often linked to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, with solar input playing a lesser role.

Scott Wing, curator of paleobotany at the Smithsonian, notes, “To understand future climate changes, we need to look further back in time to warmer periods, which can provide crucial insights.”

The study reveals that Earth has been significantly cooler in the last 10 to 20 million years compared to the previous 450 million years. However, current anthropogenic climate change is accelerating warming at a rate surpassing even the most rapid warming events of the Phanerozoic.

“Humans and the species we coexist with are adapted to a cooler climate, and rapidly transitioning to a warmer climate poses serious risks,” warns Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the University of Arizona. Historical data indicates that episodes of rapid climate change often coincide with mass extinctions.

Although this study represents a significant advancement in our understanding of temperature change, Brian Huber, curator of the micropaleontology collection, emphasizes that it is not the final word. “Researchers will continue to uncover new evidence about the distant past, refining this temperature curve over time.”

The full study, titled “A 485-million-year history of Earth’s surface temperature,” was published in the journal Science. Additional materials and interviews are available from the Smithsonian Institution and the University of Arizona.