A recent study provides the most detailed insight into Earth’s surface temperature fluctuations during the Phanerozoic eon, spanning from 538.8 million years ago to the present. This research reveals that Earth’s temperature has varied more significantly than previously understood and confirms a strong correlation between global temperatures and atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

The international research team created a comprehensive temperature curve using a method called data assimilation. By analyzing fossil distributions of cold- and heat-tolerant species, along with the chemistry of ancient shells, fossilized microorganisms, and organic matter, scientists were able to reconstruct past ocean temperatures. Additionally, geological indicators such as salt deposits and specific minerals helped map historical climates.

The researchers compiled over 150,000 published data points into a database known as PhanTASTIC (Phanerozoic Technique Averaged Surface Temperature Integrated Curve Project) and integrated this data with modern climate models.

“This method was originally designed for weather forecasting,” says Emily Judd, lead author of the study. “Here, we apply it to hindcast ancient climates rather than predict future weather.”

The team from Arizona collaborated with colleagues at the University of Bristol, generating over 850 climate model simulations based on historical continental positions and atmospheric compositions. By combining these data sources, they constructed a more accurate representation of temperature variations over the last 485 million years.

The findings indicate that global mean surface temperatures ranged from 52 to 97 degrees Fahrenheit (11 to 36 degrees Celsius) during the Phanerozoic. Extreme heat periods were often linked to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, with solar input playing a lesser role.

Scott Wing, curator of paleobotany at the Smithsonian, notes, “To understand future climate changes, we need to look further back in time to warmer periods, which can provide crucial insights.”

The study reveals that Earth has been significantly cooler in the last 10 to 20 million years compared to the previous 450 million years. However, current anthropogenic climate change is accelerating warming at a rate surpassing even the most rapid warming events of the Phanerozoic.

“Humans and the species we coexist with are adapted to a cooler climate, and rapidly transitioning to a warmer climate poses serious risks,” warns Jessica Tierney, a paleoclimatologist at the University of Arizona. Historical data indicates that episodes of rapid climate change often coincide with mass extinctions.

Although this study represents a significant advancement in our understanding of temperature change, Brian Huber, curator of the micropaleontology collection, emphasizes that it is not the final word. “Researchers will continue to uncover new evidence about the distant past, refining this temperature curve over time.”

The full study, titled “A 485-million-year history of Earth’s surface temperature,” was published in the journal Science. Additional materials and interviews are available from the Smithsonian Institution and the University of Arizona.

Early on Thursday morning, SpaceX accomplished a historic first for a company: its first spacewalk.

Two members of the crew, Jared Isaacman and Sarah Gillis, successfully exited SpaceX’s Dragon capsule “Resilience” during the private Polaris Dawn mission’s grand finale. This is the first spacewalk carried out by private citizens as opposed to government astronauts.

Commander and mission donor Issacman remarked, “Back at home we all have a lot of work to do, but from here, Earth sure looks like a perfect world,”  He declared this after exiting the spacecraft.

SpaceX views the spacewalk—also referred to as extravehicular activity, or EVA—as a critical step in achieving its mission of launching humans into space.

In collaboration with Isaacman, the millionaire inventor of Shift4 payments, SpaceX spent over two years creating space suits that can shield astronauts from the harsh atmosphere of space. Gillis, the mission specialist, and Anna Menon, the medical officer, are the first corporate employees to fly on a mission.

After the spacecraft’s hatch opened, the entire four-person crew was exposed to space vacuum for around two hours during the Polaris Dawn event. For around seven minutes each, Isaacman and Gillis were outside the capsule testing the spacesuits’ maneuverability.

Tuesday saw the mission’s launch by SpaceX. In addition to the spacewalk, Polaris Dawn is conducting approximately 40 science and research experiments, raising money for St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, and reaching an orbit of more than 1,400 kilometers from Earth, the furthest humans have traveled in space since the Apollo program.

Isaacman, who led the Inspiration4 trip to orbit for the first time in 2021, stated that he is spearheading the Polaris Program to push the envelope of private spaceflight.

“This is the inspiration side of it … anything that’s different than what we’ve seen over the last 20 or 30 years is what gets people excited, thinking: ‘Well, if this is what I’m seeing today, I wonder what tomorrow’s going to look like or a year after,’” Isaacman stated before to the expedition.

NASA on Monday authorized the launch to Jupiter’s moon Europa for the next month after assessing the spacecraft’s resilience to the high radiation levels there.

Transistors on the Europa Clipper spacecraft were questioned earlier this year due to identical issues that appeared elsewhere. NASA raced to test the electrical components to make sure they could withstand the $5 billion mission to find out if the water beneath Europa’s frozen surface is a viable place for life, given the short launch window.

October 10th is still the planned launch date for a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket. The spacecraft must swing past Mars and then Earth for gravitational assistance; NASA has three weeks to launch the craft before pausing for over a year to await another proper planetary alignment.

According to project manager Jordan Evans, when Europa Clipper is subjected to the highest radiation levels during its 49 moon flybys, the transistors, which are found in circuits throughout the spacecraft, are anticipated to deteriorate. However, Evans of NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory stated that they ought to recuperate in the three weeks that elapse between each meeting.

Teams from labs around the nation arrived at that decision after four months of nonstop testing.

“high confidence we can complete the original mission for exploring Europa as planned,” Evans stated on behalf of the project. “We are ready for Jupiter.”

Europa Clipper’s journey to Jupiter, where it will circle the gas giant every three weeks, will take six years. Numerous flybys of Europa at a distance of up to 16 miles (25 kilometers) are scheduled, enabling the mapping of almost the whole moon with cameras and other sensors, such as ice-penetrating radar.

With its solar panels extended, Europa Clipper is the largest spacecraft NASA has ever constructed to explore a planet, measuring over 100 feet (30 meters).